Dr.Hab., Professor V.S. Bykov¹
Dr.Hab., Associate Professor E.A. Cherepov¹
PhD, Associate Professor Е.М. Yanchik¹
PhD, Associate Professor V.Y. Tselishchev^1
1Institute of Sport, Tourism and Service, SUSU, Chelyabinsk

Keywords: integrated control, special training, speed-strength abilities, tensodynamometry, high jumpers.

Introduction. The purpose of sporting activity is to a greater extent associated with the achievement of sports mastery and high competitive performance owing to the effectively organized training process. An athletic training process is designed in accordance with the principal prerequisites, which are specifically expressed in a certain degree of increase in sports skills, which, in turn, determines the content, form and organization of sports activity [2, 3].

Sports mastery excellence, high level of competitive performance are provided and, at the same time, limited by athlete's physical abilities. Granting this, it becomes clear that sporting activity is to be considered as a complex socio-biological phenomenon, which should not be reduced to physical training only [4].

Control over the training process is geared to optimize athletes’ behaviour, rationally develop their physical fitness level, ensuring the best sport results. Subject to athletic training management is athletes’ behaviour and its types - operative, current, step-wise, resulting from training and competitive loads applied, as well as from the whole complex of measures within the system of athletic training [1, 5].

The efficiency of the training process largely depends on the ability to use integrated control measures as a management tool that provides feedback between trainers and athletes, and thereupon, increase the management decision level when designing skilled athletes' training processes of various structures. Integrated control is thought of as a form of management that involves application of the control means and objective and comprehensive estimation of long-term (in many respects - irreversible), stable (reversible) and urgent adaptive reactions in the core body systems during and after inclusion of specific training and competitive loads. The integrated control program implies the assessment of the factors of formation (achievement), provision and application of sport skills with the use of integral, complex, differential and local indicators relative to the control types (step-wise, current and operating). At the same time, the program considers: genotypic and phenotypic sensitivity, number of particular tasks and range of characteristics used (in-depth, selective and local control), specific means and methods applied (educational, socio-psychological and biomedical monitoring), relative stability and variability of benchmarks, scientific-methodological, organizational-methodological and technical aspects of integrated control [6, 8].

The issues of improvement of the structure and methods of athletic training management, development of evaluation criteria of the key aspects of fitness are rather complicated and there are no ready-made solutions.

Today's level of sports results is based on near-limit impacts of the amount and intensity of the training loads applied. Further improvement of sport results will most likely depend on the study of training effects of various training tools, their rational sequence and correlation. The effectiveness of athletic training management is largely due to the actual control over the key functions and systems of the body of athletes [7].

Objective of the study was to determine the most informative indicators of special physical fitness of high jumpers of various skills levels.

Methods and structure of the study. Subject to the study were 2 groups of high jumpers: I Class athletes and Candidate Masters of Sport (Group 1); Masters of Sport and World Class Athletes (Group 2). Their level of special physical fitness was evaluated by such parameters as: speed, strength, speed-strength abilities, relaxation and tension levels in the thigh and calf muscles (myotonometry). In addition, we analyzed the strength and temporal characteristics of tensodynamogram of the take-off after depth jump from 90 cm box, and anthropometric characteristics. The study lasted two years and was carried out prior to the competitions held at Y. Lukoshevich Memorial. 29 athletes were subject to the study.

Results and discussion. The analysis of the indicators of special physical qualities and physical development of MS and WCA (the average group result in high jumps being 219.4 cm) and I Class athletes and CMS (the average group result being 199.0 cm) revealed no statistically significant differences between the groups in terms of body length, body weight, leg length, calf and thigh circumference.

Table 1. Fitness indices in athletes having different qualifications, ± m_x̅

It was found that in terms of one of the speed indices, which is small-amplitude movement rate - Masters of Sport have some significant advantages (P<0.05), as opposed to the group of I Class athletes; at the same time, the difference is insignificant in terms of 20m flying run. Probably, lap-time is influenced by both movement rate and leg muscle strength and step length.

Of all the speed-strength test results, a great gap is found between the indices of the standing long jump forward from a backward take-off position exercise. Obviously, the performance of such a complicated exercise is affected more by the jumper’s coordination rather than his speed-strength qualities.

It was noted that with sports skills stepped up from Class I to Mastes of Sport, the plantar flexor and dorsiflexor strength indices increase, while high jumpers – Masters of Sport have lower levels of coordinated development of the lower limb muscles, which indicates a more harmonious development of the main muscle groups in Masters of Sport.

Concerning the differences in the state of the neuromuscular system, it should be noted that high jumpers – Masters of Sport have higher thigh and calf muscle tone amplitude indices (P<0.05), owing to both better arbitrary relaxation and greater tension of the quadriceps muscle of thigh and calf muscle.

The degree of correlation between high jump results and various fitness indices was determined by means of a correlation analysis of the comparable features in the groups of I Class high jumpers and Masters of Sport.

In the 1st group of athletes, their results were determined using such tests as: 20m flying run (r=0.85), triple jump (r=0.80), five-stride flying jump (r=0.74), Abalakov's vertical jump with arm swing (r=0.74), without arm swing (r=0.72), 20kg and 60kg barbell jump squats (r=0.84 and r=0.86, respectively), thigh circumference (r=0.76), calf muscle tension (r=0.72). The results in the 2nd group correlate with all indices of the neuromuscular system (correlation at the level of 0.58-0.84), as well as with the dorsiflexor torque index (r=0.75).

The analysis of the data obtained indicates that the sports result of the 1st group of high jumpers depended mostly on the strength of the lower limb muscles. These indices in the 2nd group of athletes reached the required level, and their result was determined to a greater extent by the state of the neuromuscular system.

As follows from the factor analysis, the totality of the characteristics being studied for the most part determines the level of special physical fitness of high jumpers. The first factor, which combines most of the indicators, can be interpreted in the athletes of both groups as a factor of "overall fitness of high jumpers". The resulting matrices testify to the fact that the sports result in both of the groups was included in the first factor (f=0.77 in the I Class athletes' group and f=0.91 in the MS group).

Table 2. Results of factor analysis of special physical fitness of athletes having different qualifications

Studying various aspects of the high jumpers' fitness, it should be noted that with their sports qualification stepped up from I Class to Masters of Sport, the qualitative changes occur in the plantar flexor and dorsiflexor strength, as well as in coordination indices, maximum movement rate and state of the neuromuscular system.

Figure 1 illustrates the specific features of the speed-strength characteristics in athletes during the take-off after depth jump from 90 cm box.

The specific speed-strength characteristics of the high jumpers were analyzed during depth jump from 90 cm box on a force platform followed by explosive take-off.

Fig. 1. Take-off phase force diagram (schematic diagram) for Group 1 (- - - - -) and Group 2 (–––––) athletes.

Legend: t₁ – maximal force time; t_x – short-term effort decay time ("switch" period in muscle work); t₀ – total take-off time; F₁ – efforts in the landing phase; F₃ – efforts in the shock absorption phase; F₂ – efforts in the active take-off phase

The analysis of the take-off phase force diagrams for I Class athletes and Masters of Sport revealed some distinctive features:

• The short-term effort decay period in the group of Masters of Sport is significantly shorter than in the group of I Class athletes (147 ms versus 228 ms);
• Masters of Sport have higher (P<0.05) force gradient indices in the active take-off phase;
• Masters of Sport redistribute their efforts between the phases of landing, short-term decay and active take-off.

The analysis of the force diagram strength indices revealed that the increase in the athletes' level of special physical fitness is due to an increase in the strength values in the active take-off phase and in the phase of "switching" from yielding to overcoming action mode of the muscles. At the same time, Sport Masters' maximum efforts in the yielding action mode are lower as compared to I Class athletes (P<0.05).

The factor analysis revealed that the combination of the detected factors reflects the level of speed-strength characteristics of high jumpers and significantly contributes to the sample generalized variance (75.0% in I Class athletes and 75.3% in Masters of Sport).

Conclusions. The nature of special manifestations in athletes during take-off is to be assessed using the biomechanical studies of the selected jump elements. There is also a good reason to compound the strength and temporal components of the take-off phase.

Changes in the structure of special physical fitness of high jumpers from I Class athletes to Masters of Sport is characterized by an increase in the display of speed and strength in the shock absorption and active take-off phases by 16.5% and 11.2%, respectively, with a simultaneous reduction of the short-term effort decay phase by 35.5%.

The strength and temporal components of the shock absorption and take-off phases are interdependent, and should be considered together by the nature of effort manifestation.

The most informative indices showing the structure of special physical fitness of high jumpers in pre-season are:

• I Class athletes: 20m flying run (r=0.85), standing triple jump (r=0.80), five-stride flying jump (r=0.74), Abalakov's vertical jump with arm swing (r=0.74) and without arm swing (r=0.72), 20kg and 60kg barbell jump squats (r=0.84 and r=0.86, respectively), thigh circumference (r=0.76), calf muscle tension (r=0.72).
• Masters of Sport: dorsiflexor torque (r=0.75), arbitrary relaxation (r=0.80) and calf muscle tension (r=0.74) indices.

Dynamic characteristics of athletes’ movements can be changed and recorded using the force dynamographic devices. It is worthwhile considering the temporal and strength indices during depth jumps followed by explosive take-off to monitor the level of development of athletes' strength abilities (qualities). The analysis of changes in the temporal characteristics indicates that the increase in special (speed-strength) fitness is characterized by a considerable reduction of the time on the support, maximum force time and dynamics of efforts in the shock absorption phase when taking-off during the depth jump.

References

1. Bal'sevich V.K. Ontokineziologiya cheloveka [Human Ontokinesiology]. Moscow: Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kultury i sporta publ., 2000, 275 p.
2. Verkhoshanskiy Y.V. Teoriya i metodologiya sportivnoy podgotovki: blokovaya sistema trenirovki sportsmenov vysokogo klassa [Theory and methods of sports training: block training system for highly-skilled athletes]. Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kultury, 2005, no. 4, pp. 2-14.
3. Isaev A.P., Erlikh V.V., Kravchenko A.A. Sistemoobrazuyuschie regulyatornye zveniya gomeostaza lyzhnikov-gonshchikov molodezhnogo sostava sbornoy Rossii po lyzhnym gonkam na spetsialno-podgotovitelnom etape podgotovki [System-forming regulatory links of homeostasis of racing skiers of Russian youth cross country skiing team at special pre-season training stage]. Vestnik YuUrGU. Ser.: Obrazovanie, Zdravookhranenie, fizicheskaya kultura, 2013, vol.13, no. 4, pp. 38-47.
4. Lubysheva L.I. Fizicheskaya i sportivnaya kultura: soderzhanie, vzaimosvyazi i dissotsiatsii [Physical and sports culture: content, interrelations and dissociations]. Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kultury, 2002, no.3, pp. 11-14.
5. Platonov V.N., Zaporozhanov V.A. Teoreticheskie aspekty otbora v sovremennom sporte [Theoretical aspects of qualification in modern sports]. Otbor, kontrol i prognozirovanie v sportivnoy trenirovke. Sb. nauch. tr. [Qualification, control and prediction in athletic training. Col. res. works] Kiev: KSIPC publ., 1990, pp. 5-27.
6. Platonov V.N. Teoriya periodizatsii sportivnoy trenirovki v techenie goda: istoriya voprosa, sostoyanie, diskussii, puti modernizatsii [Theory of periodization of sports training throughout the year: history of issue, state, discussions, ways of modernization]. Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kultury, 2009, no. 9, pp. 18 – 34.
7. Khodykin A.V. Skorostno-silovaya podgotovka pryguna v vysotu [Speed-strength training in high jumping]. Izhevsk: IzhSTU publ., 1996, 224 p.
8. Rybakov V.V., Ufimtsev A.V., Fedorov A.I., Akhmedzyanov M.N. Upravlenie sportivnoy podgotovkoy: teoretiko-metodologicheskie osnovaniya [Management of athletic training: theoretical and methodological grounds]. Moscow: SportAkademPress publ.; Chelyabinsk: ChSU; ChSSEC UrD RAE publ., 2003, 480 p.

Corresponding author: fizkult@teoriya.ru

Abstract

Athletic training management system optimization involves the development and organization of an integrated control system by means of assessing sport results based on model characteristics reflecting athletes’ skill level. The article presents various aspects of high jumpers’ physical fitness. The analysis of the amplitude (strength and speed) characteristics of movements, obtained during the take-off phase after depth jump revealed the nature of their changes in athletes with different levels of physical fitness.